ChinaKnowledge.de -
An Encyclopaedia on Chinese History and Literature
Around the beginning of the Common Era, Buddhism began to spread from India into China. Through a long period of transmission and development, it gradually formed a distinct Chinese Buddhism with national characteristics. Due to differences in the time, routes, regions of transmission, as well as ethnic cultures and socio-historical backgrounds, Chinese Buddhism developed into three major systems: Han-Chinese Buddhism, Tibetan Buddhism (formerly called Lamaism), and Theravāda Buddhism in the Yunnan region. From China, Buddhism was transmitted to Korea, Japan, and Vietnam. The most famous route of transmission was Central Asia, but there was also the sea route, along which Buddhism arrived in southern China.
The exact date when Buddhism was introduced into China remains unsettled in academic circles. Ancient Chinese historical records contain accounts that, during the time of the First Emperor of Qin, eighteen monks or śramaṇas (Chinese transcription [Ct.] shamen 沙門), among them a certain Shilifang 室利防, came to China. According to the Buddhist scripture Shanjian lü piposha 善見律毗婆沙, after the Third Buddhist Council during the reign of King Ashoka (Ch. Ayun Wang 阿育王), eminent monks were dispatched for missionary work: Mahārakṣita (Ch. Dade Moheleqiduo 大德摩訶勒棄多) was sent to the Yona World (Ch. Yuna shijie 臾那世界, the Indian designation for China), and Majjhima (Ch. Moshimo 末世摩) was sent to the regions bordering the Himalayas. During the time of King Ashoka, the eminent monk Gunavarman (Ch. Gaoseng Shanjian 高僧善見) traveled to Greater China to propagate the Dharma. Southern (Theravāda) Buddhist chronicles also record that Majjhima was sent to China. However, since no translated texts or material evidence from these missionary activities have survived, these accounts cannot be verified.
From 139 to 127 BCE during the Han dynasty 漢 (206 BCE-220 CE), during Zhang Qian's 張騫 (d. 114 BCE) missions to the Western Regions (Xiyu 西域), he saw Chinese mercantile objects in Bactria (Daxia 大夏) that must have been transported there from India (Chinese term Tianzhu 天竺). This indicates that there were already private contacts between China and India at the time, and it is possible that Buddhism was introduced into the Han regions through these exchanges. Emperor Wu 漢武帝 (r. 141-87 BCE) also opened maritime routes, establishing connections with places such as "Huangzhi 黃支" on the eastern coast of India.
In recent years, archaeological discoveries have shown that Buddhist statues already existed in Later-Han period 後漢 (25-220 CE) tombs in Pengshan 彭山, Sichuan, and the Buddhist cliff carvings at Kongwangshan 孔望山 in Lianyungang 連雲港, Jiangsu, have been preliminarily dated to the Eastern Han period. In 65 CE, Emperor Ming 漢明帝 (r. 57-75 CE) issued an edict to the Prince of Chu 楚, Liu Ying 劉英, stating that he "reveres the benevolent shrines of the Buddha (Futu 浮屠), observes purification and fasting for three months, and makes vows with the spirits", which shows that Buddhism had already been introduced at that time.
As for the transmission of scriptures, it is said to have begun in 2 BCE, when Yicun 伊存, an envoy of the king of Greater Yuezhi 大月氏, orally transmitted Buddhist scriptures to the scholar Jinglu 景盧. However, the specific text has been lost and is no longer known. Traditionally, it has been held that during the Yongping reign-era 永平 (58-75 CE) of Emperor Ming (58–75 CE), envoys were sent to the Western Regions to bring back the "Sutra in Forty-two Sections" (Sishi'er zhang jing 四十二章經), marking the beginning of the introduction of Buddhism into China. Whether this account reflects historical fact has been much debated in modern times. Since warfare in the Western Regions had disrupted transportation routes, which were not reopened until the 73 CE, it can only be inferred that Buddhism began to spread into Han Chinese areas roughly around the beginning of the Common Era.
The main centers of its early dissemination were the capital cities Chang'an 長安 (present-day Xi'an 西安, Shaanxi) and Luoyang 洛陽 (today's Henan province), extending to places such as Pengcheng 彭城 (modern Xuzhou 徐州, Jiangsu). At that time, some people regarded Buddhism as a kind of immortalist or magical practice. Thus, Emperor Huan 漢桓帝 (r. 146－167) worshipped the Yellow Emperor (Huang Di 黃帝), Laozi 老子, and the Buddha together, and treated Buddhist monks as equivalent to practitioners of esoteric arts or "magicians" (fangshi 方士).
Following the Han period, monks from regions India, Parthia (Ch. Anxi 安息), and Kangju 康居, including figures such as Dharmakāla (Ch. Tankejialuo 曇柯迦羅), Tandi 曇諦, and Saṃghavarman (Ch. Kangsengkai 康僧鎧), successively arrived in the Luoyang, the capital of the Wei empire 曹魏 (220-265) where they engaged in the translation of Buddhist scriptures. Meanwhile, Zhiqian 支謙 and Kangsenghui 康僧會 travelled to the Jianye 建業 (present-day Nanjing), the capital of the Wu empire 吳 (222/229-280) to propagate the Dharma. Zhiqian was highly favored by the ruler Sun Quan 孫權 (182-252) and was appointed as a court erudite (boshi 博士), and monasteries and pagodas were established for Kangsenghui. Dharmakāla and Tandi were well versed in monastic discipline (Sa. vinaya, Ch. lü 律). They translated the precepts text of the Mahāsāṃghika School (Ch. Dazhong bu 大眾部), the Sengqi jiexin 僧祇戒心. They advocated that the monastic community should follow the Buddha's regulations and formally receive the precepts, marking the beginning of organized monastic discipline and ordination in Chinese Buddhism. Tandi also translated the Tanmude jiemo 曇無德羯磨 at the White Horse Temple 白馬寺.
In addition, Saṃghavarman translated four scriptures, including the Ugraśreṣṭhin-paripṛcchā-sūtra (Chinese version Yujia zhangzhe suo wen jing 郁伽長者所問經) and the Sukhāvatīvyūha-sūtra (Wuliangshou jing 無量壽經). In the state of Wu, Zhiqian devoted himself primarily to translation, producing a wide range of texts from both Hīnayāna (Theravada) and Mahāyāna traditions. Kangsenghui translated, among other works, the Liudu ji jing 六度集經. At that time, both Hīnayāna and Mahāyāna scriptures were translated and studied side by side. Hīnayāna texts emphasized meditation practices and the cultivation of mental discipline, while Mahāyāna teachings placed greater emphasis on prajñā or transcendent wisdom (Ct. bore 般若m). The translation efforts, along with the promotion and study of Buddhist doctrines during this stage, laid the initial intellectual foundation for the development of Buddhism in the Wei, Jin 晉 (265-420), and Northern and Southern Dynasties periods 南北朝 (300~600). In addition, the construction of monasteries and pagodas and the carving of Buddhist images, reached a certain scale, although very few examples have survived to the present day.
During the Southern Dynasties 南朝 (420-589), most emperors were devoted believers in Buddhism. Emperor Wu 梁武帝 (r. 502-549) of the Liang dynasty 梁 (502-557) was especially pious. On four occasions, he renounced his royal status to enter a monastery, each time being redeemed by the state at great expense. He established a large number of temples, personally lectured on Buddhist scriptures, and held grand religious assemblies. During the Liang period, there were 2,846 monasteries and more than 82,700 monks and nuns. In the capital Jiankang alone, there were over 700 major temples, often with tens of thousands of monastics and lay followers.
In the Northern Dynasties 北朝 (386~581), although there were persecutions of Buddhism during the reigns of Emperor Taiwu 北魏太武帝 (r. 423-451) of the Northern Wei 北魏 (386-534) and Emperor Wu 北周武帝 (r. 560-578) of the Northern Zhou 北周 (557-581), overall the rulers of successive dynasties supported and promoted Buddhism. Emperor Wencheng 北魏文成帝 (r. 452-465) commissioned the carving of the Yungang Grottoes 雲岡石窟 in Datong 大同, Shanxi. After Emperor Xiaowen 北魏孝文帝 (r. 471-499) moved the capital to Luoyang, construction of the Longmen Grottoes 龍門石窟 began in commemoration of his mother. By the end of the Northern Wei, a total of 415 Buddhist scriptures comprising 1,919 juan were in circulation, with more than 30,000 monasteries and over 2 million monks and nuns. Under the supervision of monastic officials in Northern Qi 北齊 (550-577), there were more than 4 million monks and nuns and over 40,000 temples.
During the Northern and Southern Dynasties, many foreign monks came to China to spread the Dharma. Among the most notable were Gunavarman (Ch. Qiunabamo 求那跋摩, 367-431), Guṇabhadra (Ch. Qiunabatuoluo 求那跋陀羅, 394-468), Paramārtha (Ch. Zhendi 真諦, 499-569), Bodhiruci (Ch. Putiliuzhi 菩提流支, 6th cent.), and Ratnamati (Ch. Lenamoti 勒那摩提, c. 600). At the same time, a number of Chinese Buddhist devotees traveled to India for study. Notable figures such as Faxian 法顯 (337-422), Zhimeng 智猛, Song Yun 宋雲 (c. 500), and Huisheng 惠生 journeyed to northern India on pilgrimage and returned with large collections of Buddhist scriptures.
Through its development during the Wei, Jin, and Northern and Southern Dynasties, Buddhism laid both the intellectual and economic foundations for the emergence of distinctly Chinese Buddhist schools in the Sui 隋 (581-618) and Tang 唐 (618-907) periods. After unifying the Northern and Southern Dynasties, Emperor Wen 隋文帝 (r. 581-604) of the Sui issued an edict to construct one monastery at each of the Five Sacred Mountains (Wuyue 五嶽), and restored temples and Buddhist images that had been destroyed during the Buddhist persecutions of the Northern Zhou. In the capital Daxingcheng 大興城 (southeast of the Han-era Chang'an), he established the state monastery Daxingshan Temple 大興善寺 to implement Buddhist policies.
During the Renshou reign-period 仁壽 (601-604), 111 relic stupas were built throughout the country. Translation centers were widely established, bringing together both Chinese and foreign translators and eminent monks to translate and interpret Buddhist scriptures. Emperor Yang 隋煬帝 (r. 604-617) continued Emperor Wen's policy of supporting Buddhism. In Yangzhou 揚州, he established famous religious centers such as the Huiri Monastery 慧日道場 as bases for the spread of Buddhism, while also further developing the translation enterprises of earlier periods. As a result, Buddhism flourished greatly. During the Renshou era, there were 3,792 major monasteries across the country, with 230,000 ordained monks. A total of 46 collections of scriptures comprising 1,328,616 juan were copied; 3,853 older texts were repaired; 106,580 Buddhist stone images of various sizes were newly created; and 1.5 million images were restored.
The Tang dynasty marked the period when Chinese Buddhism reached its peak. Although Tang emperors claimed to be descendants of Laozi (family name Li 李), the founder of Daoism, and officially honored Daoism, in practice they adopted a policy of parallel support for both Daoism and Buddhism. Emperor Taizong 唐太宗 (r. 626-649) received assistance from monastic troops in suppressing regional warlords and quelling unrest. After ascending the throne, he issued an edict to build monasteries at sites of former battlefields throughout the country. He also established a translation bureau at the Daci'en Temple 大慈恩寺, inviting eminent monks from China and abroad to translate scriptures and propagate Buddhist teachings, thereby cultivating a large number of distinguished monks and scholars.
After Emperor Gaozong 唐高宗 (r. 649-683) came to power, official monasteries were established in the imperial capital and in various prefectures to pray for the peace and stability of the state. Empress Wu Zetian 武則天 (ruler 690-704) went further by ordering the construction of "Dayun Temples" 大雲寺 in every prefecture. Throughout the Tang period, Buddhist monks were treated with great respect and generously rewarded. The monk Amoghavajra (Ch. Bukong 不空) served rulers, frequently entering the imperial court and being granted the noble title Duke of Su 肅國公. After his death, Emperor Daizong 唐代宗 (r. 762-779) suspended court for three days in mourning.
During the Tang period, eminent Chinese monks emerged in great numbers. Their elaboration of Buddhist doctrine surpassed that of previous generations in both depth and breadth, thereby laying the theoretical foundations for the formation of many Buddhist schools with distinct Chinese characteristics. At the same time, Buddhist belief spread deeply among the common people, giving rise to popular literary and artistic forms such as vernacular sermons (sujiang 俗講) and so-called "transformation texts" (bianwen 變文).
In the fields of architecture, sculpture, painting, and music, Buddhism made remarkable achievements, greatly enriching the treasury of Chinese national culture and art. During the Tang dynasty, large numbers of foreign monks and scholars came to China to engage in missionary work and the translation of scriptures. At the same time, many Chinese monks, such as Xuanzang 玄奘 (602-664) and Yijing 義淨 (635-713), endured great hardships to travel to India for study. Chinese Buddhist schools also began to spread to Korea, Japan, Vietnam, and "Heling 訶陵" (present-day Indonesia), strengthening religious, cultural, and commercial ties between China and other parts of Asia.
However, in the fifth year of the Huichang reign-era 會昌 (845), due to various social and economic factors, a large-scale persecution of Buddhism occurred. Emperor Wuzong 唐武宗 (r. 840-846) ordered the confiscation of temple lands and properties, the destruction of monasteries and Buddhist images, and the suppression of the monastic community, forcing monks and nuns to return to lay life. According to the history book Tang huiyao 唐會要, more than 4,600 monasteries were destroyed, along with over 40,000 smaller Buddhist structures such as xxx zhaoti 招提 and lanruo 蘭若; temple properties were confiscated, and 260,500 monks and nuns were compelled to secularise. Buddhism thus suffered a severe setback.
The study of Buddhist doctrine flourished during the Sui and Tang dynasties, leading to the establishment of various Mahāyāna schools. Among the most important were: the Tiantai School (Tiantai Zong 天臺宗) founded by Zhiyi 智顗 (538-597); the Three-Treatises School (Sanlun Zong 三論宗) founded by Jizang 吉藏 (549-623); the Faxiang or Yogācāra School (Faxiang Zong 法相宗) established by Xuanzang and Kuiji 窺基 (632-682); and the Vinaya School (Lüzong 律宗), developed by Daoxuan 道宣 (596-667), Fali 法礪 (569-635), and Huaisu 懷素 (737-799). The Pure Land School (Jingtu Zong 淨土宗) originated with Tanluan 曇鸞 (476-542), was further developed by Daochuo 道綽 (562-645), and systematised by Shandao 善導 (613-681). The Chan (Zen) school (Chanzong 禪宗) was founded by the disciples of Hongren 弘忍 (601-675), namely Shenxiu 神秀 (606-706) and Huineng 惠能 (638-713), forming the Northern and Southern Chan Schools (Beizong 北宗, Nanzong 南宗). After the mid-Tang period, the "Five Houses of the Chan" gradually emerged: Guiyang 溈仰, Linji 臨濟, Caodong 曹洞, Yunmen 云門, and Fayan 法眼. Other major schools included the Huayan School (Huayan Zong 華嚴宗) founded by Fazang 法藏 (643-712), and Esoteric (Tantric) Buddhism (Mizong 密宗), established through the efforts of Indian monks such as Śubhakarasiṃha (Ch. Shanwuwei 善無畏, 637-735), Vajrabodhi (Ch. Jingangzhi 金剛智, 671-741), Amoghavajra, and Huiguo 惠果 (746-805). After their establishment, these schools were soon transmitted overseas along with the expansion of China's foreign contacts during the Sui and Tang periods.
In the early Northern Song period 北宋 (960-1126), the court adopted a policy of protecting Buddhism. In 960, a number of 8,000 monks were ordained, and soon afterward 157 monks, including Xingqin 行勤, were sent to India to "seek the Dharma". Zhang Congxin 張從信 was also commissioned in Yizhou 益州 (present-day Chengdu) to carve woodblocks for printing the Buddhist Canon. In 976, another 170,000 monks were ordained. In 981, a translation bureau (yijingyuan 譯經院) was established, reviving the work of translating Buddhist scriptures, which had been interrupted for 170 years since 811. At the same time, monks from the Western Regions and ancient India continuously arrived in China carrying scriptures; by 1037, their number exceeded eighty. The scale of translation activity surpassed that of the Tang period, although its achievements were somewhat inferior.
Due to increasing interaction and integration among the different schools, ideas such as the unity of doctrine and meditation and the unity of Pure Land and Chan became widely advocated. As a result, hybrid forms such as Huayan-Chan and Nianfo-Chan 念佛禪 (a Pure-Land Lineage) gained popularity. Within the Tiantai School, divisions emerged between the Shanjia 山家 "Mountain Home" and Shanwai 山外 "Outside the Mountain" factions. Meanwhile, lay devotional societies centered on reciting the Buddha's name flourished greatly and exerted wide influence. In 1021, there were nearly 460,000 monks and nuns and close to 40,000 monasteries across the country, marking the peak of Buddhist development in the Northern Song.
During the reign of Emperor Huizong 徽宗時 (1101–1125), however, because the court strongly favored Daoism, an edict was issued promoting the amalgamation of Buddhism and Daoism. Temples were converted into Daoist establishments, and Buddhism suffered a temporary setback. During the Southern Song 南宋 (1127-1279), when the regime was confined to the south, Buddhism in the Jiangnan 江南 region still maintained a certain level of prosperity. However, due to official restrictions on its development, apart from the Chan and Pure Land schools, the other schools gradually declined and were no longer comparable to their former flourishing state.
The Chan school, which emphasized a "transmission outside the scriptures" and did not rely heavily on written texts or doctrinal treatises, was therefore less affected by the Huichang persecution and the warfare of the Five Dynasties period 五代 (907-960). The Pure Land School, which stressed the recitation of the Buddha's name and single-minded devotion to Amitābha Buddha (Ch. Emituo Fo 阿彌陀佛), was simple and accessible in practice. Moreover, after the Northern Song, many monks from Chan and doctrinal traditions increasingly turned toward Pure Land as their spiritual destination. As a result, it was able to continue without interruption and has remained widely practiced even into modern times.
Neo-Confucianism (lixue 理學) of the Song dynasty, on the one hand, absorbed ideas from Buddhist schools such as Huayan and Chan, thereby enriching its own intellectual content; on the other hand, it also criticised and rejected Buddhism. Among those who opposed Buddhism, the most prominent was Ouyang Xiu 歐陽修 (1007-1072). However, his anti-Buddhist views were challenged by the monk Qisong 契嵩 (1007-1072), as well as by the statesmen Zhang Shangying 張商英 (1043-1122), Li Gang 李綱 (1083-1140) and Liu Mi 劉謐. Zhang Shangying, in his "Treatise on the protection of the Dharma" (Hufa lun 護法論), advanced the theory of harmonizing the "Three Teachings" (Confucianism, Daoism, and Buddhism, sanjiao tiaohe 三教調和). He argued that the Way of Confucius was fundamentally no different from the Buddhist path of realising the mind and seeing one's true nature, attaining unsurpassed enlightenment (Sa. bodhi). He metaphorically stated that Confucianism treats ailments of the skin, Daoism treats ailments of the blood vessels, and Buddhism treats ailments of the bone marrow—thus the essential aims of the Three Teachings (sanjiao 三教) are not in conflict. Liu Mi, in his "Treatise on the impartiality of the Three Teachings" (Sanjiao pingxin lun 三教平心論), expressed a similar perspective.
The rulers of the Yuan dynasty 元 (1279-1368) revered Tibetan Buddhism, but they also adopted a policy of protection toward Buddhism. Within Chinese Buddhism, schools such as Chan and the Vinaya School continued to be transmitted and developed. Monasteries were numerous, and the monastic population was large. In 1291, during the reign of Emperor Shizu 元世祖 (i.e., Qubilai Qaɣan, r. 1260-129), there were 42,318 monasteries nationwide and 213,000 monks and nuns. A strict system of monastic officials was established at both the central and local levels to supervise the Buddhist community. The "Imperially revised regulations of Baizhang Monastery (chixiu baizhang qinggui 敕修百丈清規) was promulgated, and the well-known Puning Temple 普寧寺 edition of the Buddhist Canon was carved and printed.
After the Wanli reign-period 萬曆 (1573-1619) of the Ming era 明 (1368-1644), four great Chan masters emerged: Lianchi Zhuhong 蓮池袾宏 (1535-1615), Zibai Zhenke 紫柏真可 (1543-1603), Hanshan Deqing 憨山德清 (1546-1623), and Ouyi Zhixu 蕅益智旭 (1599-1655). They further developed an approach that, internally, harmonised the doctrines of Chan, scholastic teaching, and Vinaya traditions, and externally, integrated the three teachings of Confucianism, Buddhism, and Daoism. As a result, their ideas were warmly received by the scholar-official class and widely embraced by the general populace, making Buddhism even more distinctly Chinese in character.
In the early Qing period 清 (1644-1911), the imperial court, following the paradigm of the Mongols, revered Tibetan Buddhism and imposed restrictions on Buddhism in the Chinese regions. During the reign of the Kangxi Emperor 康熙帝 (r. 1661-1722), these prohibitions were somewhat relaxed. Eminent monks who had lived in seclusion in the mountains since the late Ming were invited back to the capital, and the previously declining state of Buddhism temporarily showed signs of renewed vitality. Although the Yongzheng Emperor 雍正帝 (r. 1722-1735) also valued Tibetan Buddhism, he advocated that Confucianism, Buddhism, and Daoism were different in function but unified in essence, and could coexist without conflict. He promoted the integration of various Buddhist schools and personally compiled works such as the Jianmo bianyi lu 揀魔辨異錄 and the "Imperially selected sayings" Yuxuan yulu 御選語錄. He encouraged the practice of Buddha-recitation regardless of sectarian differences, which had an important influence on later Buddhism. During the reign of the Qianlong Emperor 乾隆帝 (r. 1735-1796), the "Dragon Canon" Longzang 龍藏 was printed, and the "Complete collection of dhāraṇī (mantras, spells, prayers) in four languages" Han-Man-Meng-Zang siti hebi dazang quanzhou 漢滿蒙藏四體合璧大藏全咒 was compiled, both of which contributed to the development of Buddhism.
In the late Qing period, figures such as Yang Wenhui 楊文會 (1837-1911) and Ouyang Jingwu 歐陽竟無 (1871-1943), influenced by Buddhist studies in Japan and Western Europe, established scripture-printing presses, Buddhist academies, and Buddhist societies, opening a new era in the study of Buddhist doctrine. Modern Chinese thinkers such as Kang Youwei 康有為 (1858-1927), Tan Sitong 譚嗣同 (1865-1898), Zhang Taiyan 章太炎 (1869-1936), and Liang Qichao 梁啟超 (（1873-1929) were influenced by Buddhist thought. Buddhist philosophy was also one of the intellectual sources of Tan Sitong's book Renxue 仁學. In addition, a number of eminent monks such as Yuexia 月霞 (1858-1917), Dixian 諦閑 (1858-1932), Yuanying 圓瑛 (1878-1953), Taixu 太虛 (1890-1947), and Hongyi 弘一 (1880-1942), actively worked to revive and promote Buddhism, bringing about a new phase of development.