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Fu 賦, commonly translated as "rhapsody" or "prose poetry", is a genre in traditional Chinese literature.
The original meaning of the word fu was (besides "collecting taxes") reciting a text aloud, as can be seen in several statements in the history Zuozhuan 左傳. The bibliographical treatise Yiwen zhi 藝文志 in the official dynastic history Hanshu 漢書 explains the word fu as "reciting, but not singing" (bu ge er song 不歌而誦). Educated persons of the Spring and Autumn period 春秋 (770-5th cent. BCE) were expected to practise propriety according to the meaning of the Shijing 詩經 "Book of Songs". The Han-period 漢 (206 BCE-220 CE) scholar Mao Chang 毛萇 (Mao Junior 小毛公) said that expertise in "spreading out" (fu 賦) the meaning of the Songs was a requirement to become a grand master (dafu 大夫). In the Confucian Classic Zhouli 周禮 "Rites of the Zhou", the "six types of poems" (liu shi 六詩) are mentioned, which are called "six expressions" (liu yi 六義) in the Great Preface (Daxu 大序) of the Shijing. The Han-period commentator Zheng Xuan 鄭玄 (127-200) remarks that these six types were called feng 風 "airs", fu 賦 "extended", bi 比 "parables", xing 興 "attunement", ya 雅 "odes", and song 頌 "hymns". The term fu is explained with the meaning of "to spread out, to decorate" (puchen 鋪陳), in the sense of "describing the present politics in detail to make clear good and evil". All these explanations do not directly point to a concrete literary genre, but its use as a specific form of poetry in the Shijing already paved the way for the later meaning. In his preface to his rhapsody Liangdu fu 兩都賦, the Han period writer and historian Ban Gu 班固 (32-92), therefore, says that fu was a branch of the ancient Songs (gu Shi zhi liu 古《詩》之流).
During the late Warring States period 戰國 (5th cent.-221 BCE), the philosopher Xunzi 荀子 composed a chapter called Fu pian 賦篇, in which he states that a fu text might describe clouds (yun 雲), silkworms (can 蠶), rituals (li 禮), knowledge (zhi 知), or exhortations (zhen 箴). The bibliography Yiwen zhi of the Hanshu says that these five were titles of rhapsodies once written by Xunzi. The rhapsodies described by Xunzi consisted of four-syllable verses but were written in a blend of prose and poetic style, with occasional rhymes. They were composed in pairs of questions and answers, often constructed like riddles (yinyu 隱語) and using an indirect language.
The earliest authentic "rhapsodies" were the poems in the collection Chuci 楚辭, often translated as "Songs from the South". Their earliest texts, like the Lisao 離騷 "Sorrow of parting", or the Jiuge 九歌 "Nine Songs", were written during the late Warring States period. When the entire Chuci collection was compiled by Liu Xiang 劉向 (77 BCE-6 CE) and Liu Xin 劉歆 (c. 50 BCE-23 CE) during the late Former Han period 前漢 (206 BCE-8 CE), they referred to them as "rhapsodies of Qu Yuan" (Qu Yuan fu 屈原賦) and of Song Yu 宋玉 (fl. 298–263; Song Yu fu 宋玉賦). The poems within the Chuci collection are not rhapsodies in the strict sense, but they can be regarded as the precursors of the renowned Han-period rhapsodies.
The literary history Wenxin diaolong 文心雕龍 from the Liang period 梁 (502-557) highlights the unique character of rhapsodies. It is said that "rhapsody" (fu /pǐu/) means "to spread out" (pu /pʰǐu/ 鋪), specifically "to pave colours and to spread words" (pu cai chi wen 鋪采摛文). This genre is used to articulate a specific purpose (xie zhi 寫志). Compared to the older genre of shi poetry 詩, the fu "rhapsodies" were far more descriptive, illustrative, discursive, and peripatetic. This style first appears in the poems of Qu Yuan and Song Yu. Han-period rhapsodies depict landscapes, palaces, gardens, hunt details, precious objects, strange animals, flowers and trees, fishes and birds, as well as chariots and standards used in imperial activities.
The Jin-period 晉 (265-420) writer Lu Ji 陸機 (261-303), who composed a rhapsody called Wenfu 文賦 "The rhapsody about literature", states that shi poems focused on emotions and expressed them extravagantly. However, rhapsodies concentrated on objects, describing them brilliantly. Yet, this is only half the truth because rhapsodies also aim to express a particular sentiment or feeling. For example, Qu Yuan was deeply sorrowful about the future of his homeland Chu 楚. Huangfu Mi 皇甫謐 (215-282), author of the rhapsody Sandu fu 三都賦, explains in his preface that during the late Warring States period, the old ways of kings were lost, and ancient styles forgotten. Consequently, thinkers of that time could only express their feelings and critiques through this novel genre of rhapsodies. This view is supported by the postface (Sima Qian's 司馬遷 autobiography) in the history Shiji 史記, which explicitly states that the morale of rhapsodies was to critique the extravagances cherished by the emperor and court (qi zhi fengjian, gui yu wuwei 其指風諫，歸於無為).
Rhapsodies are not only overwhelming in their formal depiction of scenes and objects, but also in illustrating the inner order of things. For both aims, a flowery language was employed, with words carefully balanced and arranged into a poetry-like pattern.
Within the history of the Chinese rhapsody, various styles can be identified, including the elegiac rhapsody (saofu 騷賦 or saoti fu 騷體賦), the Han rhapsody (Hanfu 漢賦), the couplet rhapsody (pianfu 駢賦), the rhymed rhapsody (lüfu 律賦), and the prose rhapsody (wenfu 文賦). Another classification refers to the gufu 古賦 "ancient rhapsodies", which encompasses the elegiac rhapsodies (saofu) and the Han-period types of the "greater rhapsodies" (dafu 大賦) and "lesser rhapsodies" (xiaofu 小賦). A third classification mentions the old rhapsody styles created by Xunzi, Qu Yuan, Song Yu, and those from the Former Han period.
The term "elegiac rhapsody" refers to the early precursors of this genre, namely the Songs of the South (Chuci) with poems by Qu Yuan, Song Yu, and Jia Yi 賈誼 (200-168 BCE) as the main works. The former comes from the Warring States period, while the latter two are from the Former Han. A typical feature of the elegiac style in these rhapsodies is the use of verse dividers (xi 兮, xie 些, or zhi 只) that express a sense of sighing. The language in these early rhapsodies is highly emotional and densely poetic, with deep personal thoughts conveyed through metaphors and symbols. Questions and answers are often paired in verses, but Song Yu's rhapsodies, along with some by Qu Yuan, are very descriptive. For example, in his rhapsody Funiao fu 鵩鳥賦 "The Owl", Jia Yi converses with an owl that reveals to him the mysteries of life. The rhapsody Zhao yinshi 招隱士 "Invitation of a Hidden Worthy" features a pseudonymous figure, Huainan Xiaoshan 淮南小山, describing a landscape. Mei Sheng's 枚乘 (died 140 BCE) Qifa 七發 "Seven discoveries" are written as a parable where a physician heals the crown prince but also criticises the ailments afflicting the court.
Younger scholars regard the elegiac rhapsodies as a distinct poetic genre separate from the proper rhapsodies. Many prominent Han-period poets also composed elegiac rhapsodies, such as Jia Yi (Funiao fu, Diao Qu Yuan fu 吊屈原賦), Sima Xiangru 司馬相如 (179-117 BCE; Changmen fu 長門賦), Zhang Heng 張衡 (78-139; Sixuan fu 思玄賦), and Cai Yong 蔡邕 (132 or 133—192; Shuxing fu 述行賦).
The term "Han rhapsody" (Han fu 漢賦) refers to the prominent rhapsodies of the Han period, beginning with Mei Cheng's poetic cycle Qifa. Over 900 rhapsodies were composed during this era by around 60 experts. The principal figures of Han-period rhapsodies include Sima Xiangru (Zixu fu 子虛賦, Daren fu 大人賦, Meiren fu 美人賦, and Changmen fu), Yang Xiong 揚雄 (53 BCE—18 CE; Shudu fu 蜀都賦, Ganquan fu 甘泉賦, Hedong fu 河東賦, Yulie fu 羽獵賦, Changyang fu 長楊賦), Ban Gu (Liangdu fu "The two capitals": Xifu fu 西都賦 "The western capital" and Dongdu fu 東都賦 "The eastern capital"; and the Youtong fu 幽通賦) and Zhang Heng (Liangjing fu 兩京賦).
The typical feature of Han-period rhapsodies is their strong narrative appeal, showcasing highly detailed descriptions of specific locations and activities. These rhapsodies are often very lengthy and written in a dense style, filled with information about minute details. The language used is rich and beautiful, employing ancient expressions and rare characters. As a result, rhapsodies were considered a highly elegant and refined genre of literature, traditionally recited during special ceremonial occasions. The texts are often arranged in a question-and-answer pattern or structured so that each sentence relates to the previous one. The language gives the impression of prose rather than poetry. The "lesser rhapsodies" (xiaofu) are shorter, with briefer verses and a more direct style of language and description.
Ban Gu's Liangdu fu describes the palaces of the Western Capital Chang'an 長安 (modern Xi'an 西安, Shaanxi) and the Eastern Capital Luoyang 洛陽 (modern Luoyang, Henan), as well as the activities of the court during rituals, banquets, dances, and imperial hunts. It praises the glory of the Han dynasty and its courtiers and ministers. In this context, it can be compared with the Shijing hymns and odes. Some verses subtly criticise the court's extravagance, though not too openly. The Liangdu fu was later imitated by Zhang Heng (Erdu fu 二都賦) and Zuo Si 左思 (250-305; Sandu fu 三都賦).
| 建金城而萬雉， 呀周池而成淵。 披三條之廣路， 立十二之通門。 內則街衢洞達， 閭閻且千。 九市開場， 貨別隧分。 人不得顧， 車不得旋。 闐城溢郭， 旁流百廛。 紅塵四合， 煙雲相連。 於是既庶且富， 娛樂無疆。 都人士女， 殊異乎五方。 遊士擬於公侯， 列肆侈於姬姜。 鄉曲豪舉， 游俠之雄。 節慕原嘗， 名亞春陵。 連交合眾， 騁騖乎其中。 |
They erected a metal fortress a myriad spans long, Dredged the surrounding moat to form a gaping chasm, Cleared broad avenues three lanes wide, Placed twelve gates for passage in and out. Within, the city was pierced by roads and streets, With ward gates and portals nearly a thousand. In the nine markets they set up bazaars, Their wares separated by type, their shop rows distinctly divided. There was no room for people to turn their heads, Or for chariots to wheel about. People crammed into the city, spilled into the suburbs, Everywhere streaming into the hundreds of shops. Red dust gathered in all directions; Smoke blended with the clouds. Thus, the people being both numerous and rich, There was gaiety and pleasure without end. The men and women of the capital Were the most distinctive of the five regions. Men of pleasure compared with dukes and marquises; Shopgirls were dressed more lavishly than ladies Ji or Jiang [of the ruling families of Zhou 周 and Qi 齊]. The stalwarts from the villages, The leaders of the knights-errant, Whose sense of honor emulated Lords Pingyuan and Mengchang, Whose fame equalled that of Lords Chunshen and Xinling, Joined in bands, gathered in groups, Raced and galloped within their midst. |
| 若乃觀其四郊， 浮遊近縣， 則南望杜霸， 北眺五陵。 名都對郭， 邑居相承。 英俊之域， 紱冕所興。 冠蓋如雲， 七相五公。 與乎州郡之豪傑， 五都之貨殖。 三選七遷， 充奉陵邑。 蓋以強幹弱枝， |
If then one gazes upon the surrounding suburbs, Travels to the nearby prefectures, Then to the south he may gaze on [the imperial mausoleums] Du[ling] and Ba[ling], To the north he may espy the Five Mausoleums, Where famous cities face Chang'an's outskirts, And village residences connect one to another. It is the region of the prime and superior talents, Where official sashes and hats flourish, Where caps and canopies are as thick as clouds. Seven chancellors, five ministers, Along with the powerful clans of the provinces and commanderies, And the plutocrats of the Five Capitals, Those selected from the three categories, transferred to seven locations, Were assigned to make offerings at the mausoleum towns. This was to strengthen the trunk and weaken the branches, To exalt the Supreme Capital and show it off to the myriad states. |
Knechtges 1982, vol. 1, 103-109. |
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Sima Xiangru's Zixu and Zilin are two sections of a single rhapsody titled Tianzi youlie fu 天子游獵賦 "The imperial hunt". Stylistically, this piece employs numerous extraordinary words and characters to depict the court, its people, and proceedings with flowery language and beautiful expressions. None of Mei Gao's 120 rhapsodies has survived. Dongfang Shuo's 東方朔 (154-93 BCE) Qijian 七諫 "Seven admonitions", is written in an ancient elegiac style. His Da ke nan 答客難 and Feiyou xiansheng lun 非有先生論 are two innovative texts, though not titled as rhapsodies. Wang Bao's 王褒 Dongxiao fu 洞簫賦 and
Yang Xiong, who lived at the end of the Former Han period, authored some outstanding rhapsodies, notably Ganquan fu, Hedong fu, Yulie fu, and Changyang fu. They follow the tradition of Sima Xiangru's writings but are much more openly critical of the extravagant lifestyle of the elite and their suppression of the lower classes. The rhapsodies Zhupin fu 逐貧賦 and Jiufu 酒賦 attack the luxury of the capital Chang'an. His Jiechao 解嘲 was influenced by Dongfang Shuo.
After the mid-Eastern Han period 東漢 (25-220 CE), the "greater-style" rhapsody declined, as social issues and individual worldviews became central for writers. This trend is also evident in the poetry of the style yuefu 樂府 "Songs of the Music Bureau" that flourished during the Later Han. Zhang Heng's Erdu fu remains within the tradition of Ban Gu's great rhapsody on the two capitals but is more critical of the ruling elites' extravagance, starkly contrasting with the poverty of ordinary folk. His Guitian fu 歸田賦 reflects many literati's desire to abandon official careers amidst eunuch-dominated court politics. This rhapsody concerns everyday matters rather than court rituals, exemplifying the shift towards writing "lesser rhapsodies" (xiaofu) rather than "greater rhapsodies" (dafu). An earlier example of abandoning the court and moving to the countryside is Ban Biao's 班彪 (3-54 CE) Beizheng fu 北征賦 "Northward journey".
| 遊都邑以永久， 無明略以佐時。 徒臨川以羨魚， 俟河清乎未期。 感蔡子之慷慨， 從唐生以決疑。 諒天道之微昧， 追漁父以同嬉。 超埃塵以遐逝， 與世事乎長辭。 |
In the capital I have spent an eternity, With nary a wise plan to aid the world. In vain have I stood on the riverbank admiring the fish, And futilely waited for the Yellow River to run clear. I feel the same frustrations as Cai Ze [who initially did not find employment at one of the regional courts], Who found a [physiognomer] Tang Ju to resolve his doubts [by predicting him a long life]. But the Way of Heaven is obscure and difficult to know, And thus I join the Fisherman and share my joys with him. Rising above the dust and dirt, I shall travel afar, And bid a final farewell to worldly affairs. |
| 於是仲春令月， 時和氣清。 原隰鬱茂， 百草滋榮。 王雎鼓翼， 鶬鶊哀鳴。 交頸頡頏， 關關嚶嚶。 於焉逍遙， 聊以娛情。 |
Then, in the finest month of mid-spring, When the weather is fair and the air clear, On highland and lowland vegetation luxuriantly grows, And all plants profusely bloom. The osprey thrums his wings, The oriole sadly calls. Neck to neck, they soar and swoop, Crying gwa gwa, yee yee. Among them I freely wander, And thereby cheer my spirits. |
| 爾乃龍吟方澤， 虎嘯山丘。 仰飛纖繳， 俯釣長流。 觸矢而斃， 貪餌吞鉤。 落雲間之逸禽， 懸淵沈之魦鰡。 |
And now, I am a dragon singing in the great marsh, A tiger howling in the mountains and hills. Above, I let fly my slender arrow-cord, Below, I angle in a long-flowing stream. Struck by the arrow, a bird falls; Craving the bait, a fish swallows the hook. I fell a stray bird from among the clouds; Dangle from my line gobies and minnows from the depths. |
| 于時曜靈俄景， 係以望舒。 極般遊之至樂， 雖日夕而忘劬。 感老氏之遺誡， 將迴駕乎蓬廬。 |
And then, the Spirit of Brightness suddenly shifts its rays, And is soon followed by Wangshu [the charioteer of the moon]. I am so enthralled by the perfect pleasure of rambling and roaming, Even as the sun sets, I am oblivious of fatigue. Moved by the warning left by Laozi, I shall turn my carriage back to my thatched hut. |
| 彈五弦之妙指， 詠周孔之圖書。 揮翰墨以奮藻， 陳三皇之軌模。 苟縱心於物外， |
I strum the sublime airs of the five-stringed zither,
Recite the writings of [the Duke of] Zhou and Kong [i.e., Confucius].
I take up brush and ink to write,
To set forth the patterns of the |
Knechtges 1996, vol. 3, 139-143. |
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Zhao Yi's 趙壹 (late 2nd cent. CE) Cishi jixie fu 刺世嫉邪賦 is a highly critical rhapsody expressing doubts about the morality of the ruling elite. Cai Yong's Shuxing fu 述形賦 describes court corruption, eunuch mismanagement, and the suffering of ordinary people. Mi Heng 禰衡 (173-198), near the end of the Han period, wrote the Yingwu fu 鸚鵡賦 "The parrots", feeling that the disaster of the dynasty's ruin was imminent.
Although Han rhapsodies reached their peak as a prestigious genre of courtly literature, they also became a means for personal expression and social critique. Critics argue that the genre shifted from mainly expressing reverent admiration of great causes (qingyi 情義) to emphasising superficial appearances (xingshi 事形), a view expressed by the Western Jin 西晉 266–316 scholar Zhi Yu 摯虞 (240-311).
Rhapsodies written in couplets (pianwen 駢文) were also called paifu 俳賦, meaning "juggling rhapsodies". They emerged during the late Han dynasty and flourished during the Jin and Southern Dynasties period (420–589). Emperor Wen 魏文帝 (r. 220-226) of the Cao-Wei dynasty (r. 220–226), known by his private name Cao Pi 曹丕, authored the literary critique Dianlun 典論, in which he states that "poems and rhapsodies must be beautiful" (shi fu yu li 詩賦欲麗). This suggests that beauty was primarily achieved through the correct arrangement of words.
In the early phase of the period of division (220-581), the text of rhapsodies was decorated with couplets or paired sentences. In the later phase, these paired sentences even came under strict regulation of syllables, four or six, and two sentences were linked by a common rhyme that adhered to strict phonetic rules.
This was a significant stylistic shift compared with the grandeur of rhapsodies during the Han period, when rhapsodies were composed in a free style with relatively long sentences of varying lengths. Beyond these formal criteria, the text of rhapsodies had to feature flowery and elegant language, an endless stream of detailed descriptions akin to a garden of flowers or a piece of brocade. This type of literature is much closer to what is nowadays understood as a "poem", while earlier rhapsodies were actually a form of formalised prose.
Of the Seven Masters of the Jian'an Reign (Jian'an qizi 建安七子), only Wang Can 王粲 (177-217) wrote in the ancient style of the Han rhapsodies. Cao Zhi 曹植 (192-232; Luoshen fu 洛神賦) and the Jin-period master Lu Ji had already made extensive use of rhymed sentences and "void" syllables to fill verses and create a fluent, harmonised style. Shen Yue 沈約 (441-513) from the Liang period 梁 (502-557) composed only in four-syllable verses. Xu Ling 徐陵 (507-583) and Yu Jianwu 庾肩吾 (487-551; Xiaoyuan fu 小園賦) eventually introduced paired verses. Content-wise, the "greater" rhapsodies (dafu) of the Han period focused on descriptions of capitals, palaces, gardens, hunts, and ritual activities. Rhapsodies from the Jin and Southern and Northern Dynasties periods were "lesser" in scope, dealing with private emotions, feelings, daily activities, and peculiar matters. Their number also increased significantly.
From the Jian'an reign 建安 (196-219) alone, over 150 rhapsodies have survived, with Cao Zhi having authored about a third of them. The themes shifted from grand court events and rituals to descriptions of social circumstances. Examples of Wei- and Jin-period rhapsodies in this style include Wang Can's Fuhuai fu 浮淮賦, Ruan Yu's 阮瑀 (d. 212) Jizheng fu 紀征賦, Xu Gan's 徐幹 (171-218) Xizheng fu 西征賦, Chen Lin's 陳琳 (d. 217) Wujun fu 武軍賦, and Cao Pi's Linwo fu 臨渦賦. Rhapsodies with a strong emotional tone include Wang Can's Denglou fu 登樓賦 and Cao Zhi's Luoshen fu 洛神賦. This trend was further developed by Wei-period writers such as Ji Kang's 嵇康 (223-262) rhapsody Qin fu 琴賦, "The zither". He Yan 何晏 (190-249) produced in his Jingfudian fu 景福殿賦 one of the last "great-style" rhapsodies depicting imperial palaces. Ruan Ji 阮籍 (210-263) criticised the mundane man in his Miyuan fu 獼猴賦, "The monkeys", and directly attacked the brutal scheming of the Sima family 司馬 (see Sima Yi 司馬懿) in his Jiu fu 鳩賦, "The dove".
Fu Xuan's 傅玄 (217-278) composed over 50 rhapsodies from the Western Jin period, which are excellent works that align with earlier writers but lack originality. Examples include Feng fu 風賦 "Wind", Dayan fu 大言賦, Qin fu 琴賦 "The zither", Tanqi fu 彈棋賦 "Playing chess", and Chan fu 蟬賦 "The cicada". Other "lesser-style" rhapsodies of the Western Jin period include Pan Yue's 潘岳 (247-300) Xizheng fu 西征賦, Qiuxing fu 秋興賦, Lu Ji's Haoshi fu 豪士賦, Wenfu 文賦, Chenggong Sui's 成公綏 (231-273) Su fu 嘯賦, and Mu Hua's 木華 Haifu 海賦. They excelled in using beautiful and elegant language. Zuo Si created one of the last "greater" rhapsodies, the Sandu fu.
Among the rhapsodies from the Eastern Jin period 東晉 (317-420), some innovative works stand out, such as Yuan Hong's 袁宏 (328-376) Dongzheng fu 東征賦, Guo Pu's 郭璞 (276-324) Jiang fu 江賦, Sun Chuo's 孫綽 (320-377) You Tiantaishan fu 游天臺山賦, and Tao Yuanming's 陶淵明 (c. 365-427) rhapsodies Xianqing fu 閒情賦 and Ganshi buyu fu 感士不遇賦.
During the Tang period 唐 (618-907), the state examinations were introduced as a method to select candidates for government positions. These exams required candidates to be able to compose rhapsodies. In the examination curriculum, these rhapsodies were called lüfu "rhymed rhapsodies" because they had to be written in the refined style of couplet texts, with a strong focus on sound, verse, and rhythm. For example, the rhapsody Pei fu lao liu Han Gaozu fu 沛父老留漢高祖賦 by Wang Qi 王棨 (jinshi degree 862) was composed of eight stanzas that used only eight rhymes, no more. Rhapsodies were first utilised in state examinations during the Sui period 隋 (581-618). At that time, there were no established rules for the composition of rhymed or rhythmic verses in rhapsodies. The regular use of rhymes in rhapsodies began with Shen Yue, Xu Ling and Yu Jianwu during the Southern Dynasties period and was then fully used from the Sui period on.
One of the earliest examples of a verse-rhapsody is Wang Bo's 王勃 (650-677) Han wu qi feng fu 寒梧棲鳳賦, which instrumentalised the rhymes yu 孤, qing 清, ye 夜, and yue 月. From this example, it can be seen that the use of lüfu was not limited to the state examinations but was also very popular among writers and literati. Feng Jian's 馮鑒 book Wenti zhiyao 文體指要 from the Five Dynasties period 五代 (907-960), explaining literary genres (it is quoted in Wu Ceng's 吳曾 Nenggaizhai manlu 能改齋漫錄), states that in the early Tang, there were still no strict rules for lüfu texts. It appears that only from 714 onwards, the writing of rhymed rhapsodies became part of the examinations (referred to as shifu 試賦 "examination rhapsodies"). Wang Qiu's 王丘 (died 743) Qifu 旗賦 "The flag" is the earliest surviving example of this type of literature, featuring eight rhymes. Over time, more rules and restrictions were introduced, even concerning content: it became prescribed that the themes of a rhapsody should be drawn from the four categories of literature. The number of rhymes varied between 2 and 17, although in some cases, it was enough to use a tone pitch as a form of rhyme. Rhymed rhapsodies became so popular that even esteemed writers like Bai Juyi 白居易 (772-846), his brother Bai Xingjian 白行簡 (776-826), Jia Su 賈餗 (died 835), Wang Qi 王起 (760–847), and Huang Tao 黃滔 (840-911) proclaimed their involvement in writing lüfu rhapsodies, although experts consider their quality to be mediocre.
When eight rhymes were employed, it was prescribed that they alternated between a level tone (ping 平) and a falling tone (ze 仄). This pattern was even mandated in an edict by Emperor Taizong 宋太宗 (r. 976-997) of the Song dynasty 宋 (960-1279) in 984. Similar to the infamous eight-legged essay (baguwen 八股文) that was required during the examinations of the Ming 明 (1368-1644) and Qing 清 (1644-1911) periods, lüfu rhapsodies were never a commonly used form of literature. They only served as a means of assessment in the examinations. The scholar Xu Shiceng 徐師曾 (1517-1580), from the Ming period, even states in his book Wenti mingbian 文體明辨 that the literary quality of rhapsodies declined with the invention of the lüfu.
Prose rhapsodies (wenfu) were developed during the Song period as a response to the overly elaborate couplet style used in the lüfu "rhymed rhapsodies" of the Tang and early Song eras. This evolution aligns with the "return" to straightforward, simple, and unembellished language, which was known as guwen 古文 "old-style literature" (today referred to as guwen yundong 古文運動 "ancient style movement"). In his book Gufu bianti 古賦辨體, the Yuan-period 元 (1279-1368) scholar Zhu Yao 祝堯 (jinshi degree 1318) explains that there were essentially two types of writing during the Song period: rhymed or "paired" compositions (paiti 俳體), and plain style (wenti 文體). Rhapsodies belonged to the latter category.
The literary movement to return to a simple style of writing had already been started by mid-Tang period writers like Han Yu 韓愈 (768-824) and Liu Zongyuan 柳宗元 (773-819). Some of their works are, in fact, rhapsodies written in the ancient style of the Han period. However, their titles do not include the word "rhapsody" (Jinxue jie 進學解, Wenda 答問, She yu zhe dui Zhi Bo 設漁者對智伯) because the contemporary understanding of what a rhapsody is was different. The oldest Tang-period rhapsody written in the ancient, simple style was Epanggong fu 阿房宮賦 by Du Mu 杜牧 (803-852).
During the early Song period, writers of the Xikun School 西崑派 continued to employ the rhymed style for rhapsodies. However, the influential writer Ouyang Xiu 歐陽修 (1007-1072) supported the "ancient literature" movement, which contributed to the decline of the rhymed rhapsody. His most significant work in this field was the Qiusheng fu 秋聲賦. Su Shi 蘇軾 (1037-1101) later also composed rhapsodies in the ancient style, the two most famous being Qian Chibi fu 前赤壁賦 and Hou Chibi fu 後赤壁賦, both referring to the famous battle of the Red Cliff of 208 CE. These early Song-period wenfu rhapsodies are characterised by descriptions of landscapes, the expression of emotions, the narration of actions, and discussions of particular themes. Their authors are credited with guiding the rhapsody back into the realm of prose writing, diverging from poetry. Conversely, the literary quality of Song-period prose rhapsodies is generally considered inferior to that of their Han-period predecessors. While stylistic patterns persisted, the wording was seen as lacking the appeal of poetry. Yuan-period scholars like Zhu Yao perceived a certain inconsistency in the hybrid form of the prose rhapsody, which was neither pure prose nor poetry. This perception may have contributed to the gradually diminishing interest of writers in the genre of rhapsodies after the conclusion of the Song period.