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Zoushu 奏疏, also known as zouyi 奏議, is a broad term for texts submitted to the throne, generally referred to as "memorials". In pre-imperial times, documents delivered to the ruler were typically called shangshu 上書 or shangshu 上疏. The term zou 奏, meaning "to submit a letter to a superior", has been in use since the Qin period 秦 (221-206 BCE). The word shu 疏, on the other hand, signifies "to communicate, to mediate".
Liu Xie's 劉勰 (c. 460/480-c. 522/538) literary theory Wenxin diaolong 文心雕龍 identifies three types of memorial: zhangbiao 章表 (zhang and biao memorial), zouqi 奏啟 (zou and qi memorial), and yidui 議對 (discussion and answer). It suggests the following criteria for distinguishing them: zhang means "to make clear or articulate one's feelings of gratitude" (xie en 謝恩), zou means "to memorialise to investigate or to impeach" (an he 按劾), biao means "to express one's feelings" (chen qing 陳請[=情]), and yi means "to discuss or to maintain a difference of opinion" (zhi yi 執異).
Other types of memorials include itemised reports (shu 疏), letters of submission (shangshu 上書), secret memorials (fengshi 封事), memorials that express conflicting views or advise against a proposed course of action (boyi 駁議), detailed reports (zhazi 札子), accusations (tanzhang 彈章, tanshi 彈事, tanwen 彈文), solutions to problematic issues (duice 對策), and explanations and memos (qi jian 啟箋).
As literary categories, memorials are counterparts to imperial orders and edicts, classified under the category zouyi lei 奏議類. The collection of memorials for individuals or on particular issues was very popular. Notable collections include Lu Xuangong zouyi 陸宣公奏議, which contains the memorials of Lu Zhi 陸贄 (754-805), Bao Xiaxu zouyi 包孝胥奏議, comprising the memorials of Bao Cheng 包拯 (999-1062), Guo Songtao's 郭嵩燾 (1818-1891) Guo Shilang zoushu 郭侍郎奏疏 and Guo Songtao zougao 郭嵩燾奏稿, Zuo Zongtang's 左宗棠 (1812-1885) Zuo Zongtang quanji 左宗棠全集 (chapter Zougao 奏稿), as well as Yao Nai's 姚鼐 (1732-1815) anthology Gu wenci leizuan 古文辭類纂 and Zeng Guofan's 曾國藩 (1811-1872) collection Jingshi baijia zachao 經史百家雜鈔, both containing many memorials to the throne.
The fragments of Cao Pi's 曹丕 (187-226) Dianlun 典論, chapter Lunwen 論文, state that "official memorials and discourses on state matters should be formally elegant" (zou yi yi ya 奏議宜雅). Lu Ji's 陸機 (261-303) "Rhapsody on literature" (Wenfu 文賦) stipulates that memorials be written in a "quiet-tempered, articulate and elevated style" (zou pingche yi xianya 奏平徹以閑雅). As a result, memorials were composed in accordance with high literary standards, and some of them became models of stylistic and linguistic quality.
Often-read memorials are Li Si's 李斯 (284-208 BCE) Jian zhu ke biao 諫逐客書, Chao Cuo's 晁錯 (200-154 BCE) Yan bing shi shu 言兵事書, Yan An's 嚴安 (c. 100 BCE) Yan shi wu shu 言世務書, Ban Zhao's 班昭 (49?-120?) Wei xiong Chao qiu dai shu 為兄超求代疏, Wei Zheng's 魏征 (580-643) Jian Taizong shi si shu 諫太宗十思疏, Li Bai's 李白 (701-762) Wei Song Zhongcheng zi jian biao 為宋中丞自薦表 or Hu Quan's 胡銓 (1102-1180) Wuxu shang Gaozong tanshi 戊午上高宗封事.
The most important types of memorials were:
Zou 奏, a term used from the early imperial period onwards. The Han dynasty 漢 (208 BCE-220 CE) employed the word to describe a specific type of writing. The literary theory book Wenxin diaolong 文心雕龍 states that zou memorials were used to narrate political affairs (chen zhengshi 陳政事), provide information about rules and rites (xian dianyi 獻典儀), report urgent matters (shang jibian 上急變), and examine transgressions and false statements (he qianmiu 劾愆謬). In its earliest form, zou-type memorials began with the words "your servant, risking his life, says" (chen meisi yan 臣昧死言) and concluded with the phrase "bowing [my] head, [I] report this" (xi shou yi wen 稽首以聞). They remained in use until the Ming period 明 (1368-1644), when they were known as zouben 奏本. The form was abolished during the early Qing period 清 (1644-1911) and replaced by either routine memorials (tiben 題本) or confidential memorials (zouzhe 奏折).
Zhang 章, meaning "stanza" or "provision", was in early imperial times a document used to express gratitude for the grace of the sovereign or to address specific issues. During the Later Han period 後漢 (25-220 CE), zhang-type memorials were used for congratulations and also to criticise or reprimand earlier decisions. The type was utilised until the end of the Jin period 晉 (265-420). The terms zouzhang 奏章 and benzhang 本章 are derived from this kind of memorial.
Biao 表, literally meaning "statement, avowal", was in early imperial times used for a wide range of issues such as critique, suggestions, requests, presentations, recommendations, examination of facts, settling juridical decisions, and even for words of comfort. From the Tang period 唐 (618-907) onwards, its use was restricted to expressing thanks, offering congratulations, and making presentations. The typical opening sentence during the Han period was "Your servant X says" (chen mou yan 臣某言), while the closing formula was "with reverence and awe, your servant X bows his head and fears for his life" (chen mou chenghuang chengkong, dunshou dunshou sizui sizui 臣某誠惶誠恐，頓首頓首，死罪死罪).
In late imperial times, the formulas became more intricate. Biao-type memorials started with the words "servant X of Prince Y sincerely happy and pleased, kotows and bows his head, kneels and declares that" (mou wang mou chen chenghuan chengbian, qishou dunshou shang yan, fu yi yunyun 某王某臣誠歡誠忭，稽首頓首上言，伏以云云), and concluded with "your servants cannot await the joyful arrival of Heavenly bliss from above and respectfully submit this statement to express our compliments" (chen deng wu ren zhantian yangsheng yongyue huanbian zhi zhi, jin feng biao cheng he yi wen 臣等無任瞻天仰圣踴躍歡忭之至，謹奉表稱賀以聞), along with the date and the name of the presenter.
"Disputes" (yi 議) were reports about the outcomes of discussions among high officials concerning problematic issues. Each discussant submitted a letter of his own (boyi 駁議), explaining his arguments on the matter. The letter began with the words "Your servant X in the function of Y is of the opinion that" (mou guan mou chen yiwei rushi 某官某臣以為如是), and concluded with the humble words "Your ignorant servant X fears for his life" (chen mou yuzhuang sizui 臣某愚戇死罪). This kind of memorial was used until the Sui period 隋 (581-618).
"Conditions" (zhuang 狀, also called zouzhuang 奏狀 or juzhuang 舉狀) were initially used to recommend candidates among the erudites for the Five Classics (wujing boshi 五經博士). This narrow scope was soon abandoned, and zhuang-type memorials were utilised for recommending candidates for other positions. These texts included arguments explaining why a particular individual was suitable. This format was used until the Song period (960-1279), when state examinations became the standard method of appointment. The form of zhuang-type memorials was not fixed, but the Song-period initial formula was "on the day X Your servant Y submits a memorial that" (mou nian-yue-ri mou guan zhuangzou 某年月日某官狀奏), while the standard closing words were "humbly presenting this memorial, [I] kneel down to await your Majesty's order" (jin lu zou wen, fu hou chi zhi 謹錄奏聞，伏候勅旨).
The memorial type of "explanation" (qi 啟) was introduced during the Wei period 曹魏 (220-265). It closely resembled biao-type memorials and was used for a wide variety of topics requiring detailed descriptions. From the Sui period onwards, qi-type memorials were reserved for letters from high officials to princes (including the heir apparent), regents, and the empress dowager. The shape of qi-type memorials was similar to zouben, but the cover page was inscribed with the character 啟. The letter itself began with the name of the sender and a keyword indicating the content. It concluded with the phrase "humbly [I] submit this explanation to your information" (jin ju qi zhi 謹具啟知), along with the date and the name of the official.
"Memos" (jian 箋, jianzou 箋奏, or jianji 箋記) were used to address an empress or a prince (including the heir apparent). From the Ming period onwards, jian-type memorials were limited to expressions of congratulations. They commenced with the words "X in the office of Y happily and pleased kotows and bows his head, and reports that" (mou guan moumou chen huan cheng bian xishou dunshou shangyan 某官某某，誠懽誠忭，稽首頓首上言) and were to be written in rhythmic prose (pianti wen 駢體文). The extensive closing formula was "your servants cannot await the arrival of Heavenly bliss from above and respectfully submit this memo to express our compliments" (chen deng wu ren zhantian yangsheng huanbian zhi zhi, jin feng jian cheng he yi wen 臣等無任瞻天仰圣懽忭之至，謹奉箋稱賀以聞).
There were two types of "notes" (jietie 揭帖).
The first type was "secret notes" (mijie 密揭) submitted to the throne by members of the Grand Secretariat (neige 內閣) with the Senior Grand Secretary (fuchen 輔臣). Notes were shorter than routine memorials (tiben) and were to be sealed by the Hall of the Profundity of Literature (Wenyuange 文淵閣) before being submitted to the emperor.
The other type consisted of attachments (fuben 副本) to the main text (zhengben 正本) of routine memorials, memorials to the throne (zou), or explanations (qi). Routine memorials could have up to four attachments, depending on their content. The Office of Transmission (tongzhengshi si 通政使司) might then distribute these attachments to institutions where the information inscribed was to be utilised. The cover of an attachment was inscribed with the characters 揭帖. The text began with the function, title, and name of the presenter, along with a brief headline summarising the content, and concluded with the explanation that, apart from the routine memorial, an attachment had to be submitted by the presenter (chu ju ti wai, li he ju jie, xu zhi jietie zhe 除具題外，理合具揭，須至揭帖者). The date, along with the name and function of the presenter, closed the document.