Datongshu 大同書

Datongshu 大同書 "Book of the Great Unity"d is the most famous writing of the publisher and reformer Kang Youwei 康有為 (1858-1927). The book had the original title Renlei gongli 人類公理 “Common principles of mankind” and was begun in 1885 and finished as a first draft in 1901, when Kang decided to chose the known title. The first two chapters of the text were published in 1913 in the journal Buren 不忍 with the title Ru shijie, guan zhongku 入世界，觀眾苦 “Entering the world and seeing universal suffering”, and Qu guojie, he dadi 去國界，合大地 “Abolishing national boundaries and uniting the world“, respectively. The full text was published as late as 1936 by the Zhonghua Shuju Press 中華書局, long after Kang’s passing away and after revision by Qian Ding’an 錢定安. The philosophical basis of the book is the concept of the “three worlds” (san jie shuo 三世說) of the Gongyang School 公羊派 of Han-period Confucianism, according to which mankind was to proceed from an age of weakness and chaos (衰乱) to an age of advancement of fairness and equality (shengping 升平) to a final stage of “grand peace” (taiping 太平); the book also adapted the ideas of the age of “small tanquillity” (xiaokang 小康) and that of the “grand union” (datong 大同, transl. Legge) of the chapter Liyun 禮運 of the ritual Classic Liji 禮記. These Confucian theories are merged with the Buddhist proposition of empathy (cibei 慈悲) and the Christian idea of universal love. In addition to these, Kang was influenced by the philosophy of natural rights (tianfu renquan 天賦人權) of Rousseau and early utopian Socialism. Based on these ideologies, Kang Youwei envisaged a society without classes and class struggles, and instead realising a “great unity” in which each individual enjoys her/his rights on an equal footing. This society was “most equal, most just, most humane” (zhi ping, zhi gong, zhi ren 至平、至公，至仁), and was characterised by a “sacred way of rule” (zhi zhi sheng 治之聖 /oder 至?/). Social emancipation was only possible through the abolishment of private means of production (yu zhi datong, bi qu ren zhi sichan 欲致大同，必去人之私產), and all means of production, be they agricultural, commercial (including railways, postal services and steamships), or based in the crafts and trades, were to be nationalized or collectivised (fan nong gong shang zhi ye, bi gui zhi gong 凡農工商之業，必歸之公). His book therefore found a great echo among socialist thinkers. Kang was convinced that the invention of machines would help the common people to spend less time for work (jiqi ri xin, zu yi dai ren zhi lao 機器日新，足以代人之勞) and enjoy prosperity and wealth, with sufficient food, clothing, and living spaces. Science, culture and education, but also moral aspects, were on the highest level. The society he envisaged was without social classes, without slaves and servants, and without rulers and religious leaders – it was based on “humanism” (renben zhuyi 人本主義). The whole book is divided into ten chapters, each of which describes one aspect of the world in which Kang lived and which he desired to turn into an utopian counter-image. The sufferings (ku 苦) of the people were caused by nine different borders or limits (jiu jie 九界). Kang wanted to abolish national borders (guojie 國界), military and jails. Instead, all countries of the world were loyal to one united common government (gong zhengfu 公政府), which took over the collectivisation of means of production (chanjie 產界, the “limits of [means of] production”) and aspects of material culture. Kang wished to abolish the borders of social classes (jijie 級界), and those between genders and races. The fetters of families (jiajie 家界) were to be shaken off, with open and free partnerships between individuals. Children, women, and the elderly were to be supported by the common government. The precondition of these changes was sympathy (bu ren zhi xin 不忍之心), which is naturally embedded in the hearts of all men. Sympathy would unify men in a common fight for the abolishment of sufferings and the achievement of utmost joyment (qiu qi bu ku er zhi le 求其不苦而至樂). In unison with the dissolution of borders, national armies were to be reduced step by step until no military would be needed anymore. All nations would gather in a world union and select a parliament (with annual elections) and a world government headed by a “Honoured” (zunzhe 尊者) or “Elder” (dazhang 大長). The world would be divided into ten “continents” (zhou 洲), with political divisions (jie 界) each and headed by supervisory governments (xiao zhengfu 小政府). Weights and measures and the calendar would be unified, and all humans would use one and the same language. Females were to be allowed full and equal participation in official life, attending girl’s schools (but not mixed schools), participating in official examinations, being entrusted with official positions, and enjoying the same legal rights as males. Child marriage and foot binding were prohibited, and women were allowed to participate fully in public life. Households were abolished and replaced by public support (gongyang 公養) for women and children, public schooling (gongjiao 公教) , and public care (gongxu 公恤) for the elderly and the sick. The influence of Buddhist thought in Kang Youwei’s book can be seen in his wish that – apart from animals harming men – all wild creatures should be protected. Quite obscure from the modern viewpoint was Kang’s proposal to merge all human “races”and to assimilate all different phenotypes by resettling and intentionally marrying people of different stock and thus breeding a kind of mixed and homogeneous type of man. In this way, mankind was standardized also in their physical appearance (which was, he believed, a result of different climates, and diet). Kang Youwei’s book depicts a utopian society. It is nonetheless of some value because it points at problems in many societies, particularly economic exploitation and legal restrictions to certain groups of humans, e.g., slaves, women, prostitutes, or the poor. Quite interesting is that the concept of “benevolence” or “kindness” (ren 仁), which is a central term in Confucian images of society, is especially used to surpass the social boundaries imposed by the Confucian model of state and society. Kang uses the term ren describe compassion and sympathy towards other humans, whoever they might be. The ultimate goal of Kang’s society is “to take away suffering and create pleasure and joy” (qu ku yi qiu le 去苦以求樂) In 1956, the Zhongguo Guji Chubanshe 中國古籍出版社 published a modern, annotated edition. There is an English translation by Laurence G. Thompson (1958), Ta t´ung shu: The One-World Philosophy of K `ang Yu-wei (London: Allen & Unwin). This book was translated into German by Horst Kube and published by Wolfgang Bauer (Düsseldorf, Köln: Diederichs, 1974). Contents 1. 分入世界觀眾苦 Entering the world and seeing universal suffering 2. 去國界合大地 Abolishing national boundaries and uniting the world 3. 去級界平民族 Abolishing class boundaries and equalizing all people 4. 去種界同人類 Abolishing racial boundaries and amalgamating the races 5. 去形界保獨立 Abolishing sex boundaries and preserving independence 6. 去家界為天民 Abolishing family boundaries and becoming "Heaven's people" 7. 去產界公生產 Abolishing livelihood boundaries and making occupations public 8. 去亂界治太平 Abolishing administrative boundaries and governing with complete peace-and-equality 9. 去類界愛眾生 Abolishing boundaries of kind, and loving all living [things] 10. 去苦界至極樂 Abolishing boundaries of suffering and attaining utmost happiness