Miaofa lianhua jing 妙法蓮花經

The "Lotus Sutra", original Sanskrit title Saddharma-puṇḍarīka-sūtra, Chinese Miaofa lianhua jing 妙法蓮華經, Miaofa huajing 妙法華經 or Fahuajing 法華經, is probably the single most important text in East Asian Buddhism. Together with the "Sutra of Infinite Meanings" (Wuliangyi jing 無量義經, T0276) and the "Contemplation of Samantabhadra Bodhisattva Sutra" (Guan Puxian jing 觀普賢經, T0277), this scripture belongs to the canon of the "Threefold Lotus Sutras" (Fahua sanbu jing 法華三部經). It serves as a principal canonical foundation for the Tiantai School 天臺宗 and the Japanese Nichiren School 日蓮宗.

The scripture was first translated by Kumārajīva (Ch. Jiumoluoshi 鳩摩羅什, 344-413, T0262). Alternative Chinese translations include the Zhengfa huajing 正法華經 by Dharmarakṣa (Ch. Zhu Fahu 竺法護, c. 229-306, T0263), and the Tianpin miaofa lianhua jing 添品妙法蓮華經 (T0264), translated during the Sui period 隋 (581-618) by Jñānagupta (Ch. Shenajueduo 闍那崛多, 523-c. 600) and Dharmagupta (Ch. Damojiduo 達摩笈多, d. 619). Separate and partial translations of individual chapters also survive, including the one-fascicle Lotus Sutra (fragmentary translation Satan fentuoli jing 薩曇分陀利經, T0265), translated anonymously in the Western Jin period 晉 (265-420). Its contents correspond roughly to part of the chapter "Emergence of the treasure tower" (Xian baota pin 見寶塔品) and the "Devadatta" chapter (Tipodaduo pin 提婆達多品) of the complete sutra. Moreover, according to volumes eleven and fourteen of the book catalogue Kaiyuan shijiao lu 開元釋教錄 (T2154), there were once three additional translations now lost: the Fahua sanmei jing 法華三昧經, the Satan fentuoli jing 薩蕓芬陀利經, and the Fangdeng fahua jing 方等法華經).

Kumārajīva's original translation comprised seven juan and twenty-seven chapters (pin 品). The "Universal Gate" chapter (Pumen pin 普門品) did not contain a repeated section with a gāthā (ji 偈) hymn. Later generations incorporated the Devadatta chapter obtained by Faxian 法獻 (c. 423-497) in Gaochang 高昌, the verse section of the Universal Gate chapter translated by Jñānagupta, and the "Dhāraṇī of the Medicine King Bodhisattva" (Yaowang Pusa zhou 藥王菩薩咒) translated by Xuanzang 玄奘 (602-664) during the Tang period 唐 (618-907). Together, these were compiled to form the currently circulating version of twenty-eight chapters.

The structural organisation of the sutra has been understood differently since ancient times. The commentator Zhiyi 智顗 (538-597) established the following scheme: the Introductory chapter (Xupin 序品 as the prefatory section; the chapters from "Expediant means" (Fangbian pin 方便品) through the first half of the "Distinction of benefits" (Fenbie gongde pin 分別功德品) as the main doctrine section, and the latter half of the "Distinction of benefits" through the chapter "Encouragement of Bodhisattva Universally Worthy" (Puxian quanfa pin 普賢勸發品) as the "circulation section" (liutong fen 流通分). Zhiyi further divided the sutra into the "Trace Gate" (Jimen 跡門, the first fourteen chapters), and the "Original Gate" (Benmen 本門, the latter fourteen chapters). Later scholars have largely followed this interpretive framework.

The expression "wonderful dharma (teaching or law)" (miaofa 妙法) means that the teachings expounded are subtle, wondrous, and unsurpassed. The lotus flower is used as a metaphor for the purity and immaculate nature of the scripture. The sutra proclaims that since attaining Buddhahood, the Śākyamuni Buddha (Ch. Shijiamouni 釋迦牟尼) has possessed an immeasurable lifespan, manifests himself in various forms, and employs diverse skillful means to expound the subtle dharma. The book's central teaching is the unification of the Three Vehicles (sansheng 三乘), that of the śrāvakas (Ch. shengwen 聲聞, i.e., disciples), pratyekabuddhas (Ch. yuanjue 緣覺, "silent Buddha [who does not teach]"), and bodhisattvas (Ch. Pusa 菩薩), into the One Vehicle, the "Buddha Vehicle" (Fosheng 佛乘), thereby harmonizing the differing doctrines of the Greater (dasheng 大乘, i.e., Mahāyāna Buddhism) and Lesser Vehicles (xiaosheng 小乘, i.e., Theravada Buddhism). While the application of all three Vehicles is an "expediant means" (sansheng fangbian 三乘方便), the realisation of the One Vehicle is the "ultimate truth" (yisheng zhenshi 一乘真實).

The sutra further asserts that all sentient beings inherently possess the Buddha's wisdom and insight, awaiting only its awakening and revelation. The sutra's central thought is the teaching of emptiness (śūnyatā, Ch. kongwu 空無) and non-characteristics (kongxing 空性), which corresponds with that of the Prajñāpāramitā Sutras (bore jing 般若經, e.g., Jingangjing 金剛經). In its ultimate purport, the teaching's final destination is in communication with the Mahā-parinirvāṇa Sūtra (Niepanjing 涅槃經). It points toward the "Pure Land" Sukhāvatī (Ch. Jingtu 淨土), proclaims the salvation of the world, and also expounds magical dhāraṇī mantras (tuoluoni zhou 陀羅尼咒) for esoteric protection, thus representing a comprehensive synthesis of Mahāyāna Buddhist thought.

There are many commentarial works on this text. Major examples include the Fahuajing shu 法華經疏 (T2749?) by Zhu Daosheng 竺道生 (355-434), the Fahua yiji 法華義記 or Fahuajing yiji 法華經義記 by Fayun 法雲 (467-529), the Fahua wenju 法華文句 (T1719) and Fahua xuanyi 法華玄義 (T1720) by Zhiyi, Jizang's 吉藏 (549-623) Fahuajing xuanlun 法華經玄論 (T1720) and Fahuajing yishu 法華經義疏, the Fahuajing xuanzan 法華經玄讚 by Kuiji 窺基 (632-682), Xu Xingshan's 徐行善 Fahuajing kezhu 法華經科注, Zhixu's 智旭 (1599-1655) Fahuajing huiyi 法華經會義 and Tongli's 通理 Fahuajing zhizhang shu 法華經指掌疏.

The sutra has been included in successive editions of the Buddhist Canon, and copies are also preserved among the Dunhuang 敦煌 manuscripts. In modern times, Sanskrit manuscripts of the text have been discovered in Nepal, Kashmir, Xinjiang and Tibet, with more than forty distinct manuscript versions identified.

The book catalogue Zhongjing mulu 眾經目錄 from the Sui period already recorded three apocryphal or forged scriptures associated with the Lotus sutra, such as the Miaofa lianhua jing duliang tiandi pin 妙法蓮花經度量天地品. Apocryphal works attached to this sutra are also preserved among the Dunhuang manuscripts, in the Xu daozang jing 續道藏經, and in the Japanese Tripitaka supplement Zoku zōkyō 續藏經.

H. Kern's English translation (1884), Saddharma-Pundarîka, or, the Lotus of the True Law, is included in the series Sacred Books of the East, vol. XXI. Other English translations have been produced by Leon Hurvitz (1976), Burton Watson (1993) and William Edward Soothill (1994).